intro to Soc. (2024)

Socrates

Historicalbackground: Birth around 470, trial andexecution in 399. Socrates was the firstof the three major Greek philosophers; the others being Socrates’ student Platoand Plato’s student Aristotle. Socratesdid not write anything himself. We knowof his views primarily through Plato's dialogues where Socrates is the primarycharacter. Socrates is also knownthrough plays of Aristophanes and the historical writings of Xenophon. In many of Plato's dialogues it is difficultto determine when Socrates' views are being represented and when the characterof Socrates is used as a mouthpiece for Plato's views.

Socrateswas well known in Athens. He wasexocentric, poor, ugly, brave, stoic and temperate. He was a distinguished veteran who foughtbravely on Athens behalf and was apparently indifferent to thediscomforts of war. Socrates claimed tohear a divine inner voice he called his daimon. He was also prone to go into catatonic statesof concentration.

TheSophists: The conflicting views of theIonian and Eleatic philosophers of nature encouraged skepticism about ourability to obtain knowledge through rational inquiry. In the sophists this skepticism is manifestedin epistemic and moral relativism.Epistemic relativism is the view that there is no objective standard forevaluating the truth or likely truth of our beliefs. Rather, epistemic standards of reasoning arerelative to one's point of view and interests.Moral relativism is the parallel doctrine about moral standards. The moral relativist takes there to be noobjective grounds for judging some ethical opinions to be correct and othersnot. Rather, ethical judgments can onlybe made relative to one or another system of moral beliefs and no system can beevaluated as objectively better than another.Since earlier attempts at rational inquiry had produced conflictingresults, the Sophists held that no opinion could be said to constituteknowledge. Rather than providing groundsfor thinking some beliefs are true and other false, rational argument can onlybe fruitfully employed as rhetoric, the art of persuasion. For the epistemic relativist, the value ofreason lies not in revealing the truth but in advancing ones interests. The epistemic and moral relativism of theSophist has a contemporary manifestation in much "post-modern"thought.

Unlikethe Ionian and Eleatic philosophers, Socrates was more interested in ethicalmatters than metaphysical questions about the nature of reality. Socrates was not an epistemic or moral relativist.He pursued rational inquiry as a means of discovering the truth about ethicalmatters. But he did not advance anyethical doctrines or lay claim to any knowledge about ethical matters. Instead, his criticism of the Sophists andhis contribution to philosophy and science came in the form of his method ofinquiry.

Oracleof Delphi story:Chaerophon visits the Oracle of Delphi and asks if anyone in Athens is wiser than Socrates. The Oracle answered that no one is wiser thanSocrates. Socrates made it his missionin life to test and understand the Oracle's pronouncement. He seeks out people who have a reputation forwisdom in various regards and tests their claims to knowledge throughquestioning. He discovers a good deal ofvain ignorance and false clams to knowledge, but no one with genuinewisdom. Ultimately, Socrates concludesthat he is wisest; but not because he possesses special knowledge not had byothers. Rather he finds that he iswisest because he recognizes his own lack of knowledge while others think theyknow, but do not. This is not askeptical conclusion, however. Socratesdoes not deny that knowledge is to be had.While he does not claim to have knowledge himself, he shows us how toobtain knowledge by demonstrating a method of testing claims to knowledge.

Theknowledge sought by Socrates in Plato's dialogues is knowledge of the properdefinition or analysis of abstract ethical concepts like justice, piety, loveetc.

Dialectic: The dialectic is a method of testing claimsto knowledge or proposed analyses of concepts.Interlocutor proposes a definition or analysis. Socrates raisesobjection or offers counter examples.The interlocutor reformulates his position to handle the objection.Socrates raises a more refined objection.Socrates uses the dialectic to discredit others claims toknowledge. While revealing the ignoranceof his interlocutors, Socrates also shows how to make progress towards moreadequate knowledge.

Soc.offers only 2 options, complete knowledge or ignorance. But perhaps we canidentify a third alternative: limited orpartial knowledge.

Platoaccepts the rationalist standard for knowledge and thinks knowledge can beattained, but not easily. Real knowledgeis knowledge of abstract, eternal unchanging “forms” (properties, or concepts:physical things are just cheap copies of ideal forms in “Plato's heaven”).

Butfrom the Socratic point of view, the prospects for knowledge might lookdim. Contrary to Plato's views, Perhapsphilosophy is useful only for demonstrating the feebleness of our intellect,but holds no prospect for revealing anything about the nature of theworld. This is Antisthenes response tothe Socratic enterprise. The view thatwe cannot attain knowledge is called skepticism.

Perhapswe can never completely know the nature of justice. But the process of dialectic may serve toimprove our limited understanding.Aristotle takes this view in his frequently given advice that we shouldseek as much clarity as our subject matter admits of and not expect more. The Socratic dialectic gives us a means ofmaking progress and improving our limited understanding even if it isultimately impossible for us to attain the rationalist ideal for certain andcomplete knowledge.

Socrateswas not politically active, but he was also no fan of democracy. He thought the city-state should be ruled by"he who knows" (horse trainer analogy).

Someof Socrates’ followers were involved in reign of terror. This contributed to the prosecution and executionof Socrates (more about this when we read the Apology).